Public discussion at the time centered on whether food could be produced directly from crude oil, an idea met mainly with the practical objection that it would be a far more expensive process than conventional farming.

Petro Online noted, however, that in the food industry this category of compounds is referred to as mineral oils, the equivalent of vegetable oils. These are used to preserve the freshness of packaged baked goods, while their other derivatives are found mainly among food colorings.

"Some chocolates are made with petroleum by-products. You'll see this labelled as food-grade paraffin wax", the website noted. Another particularly controversial substance, one virtually unknown in the European Union, is olestra.

Olestra is an indigestible substance with properties similar to mineral oil, a description consistent with a 1998 study indexed in the US National Institutes of Health's (NIH) PubMed database. Although it is not toxic, which is why the FDA has approved it for certain foods, including potato and corn chips, it does cause digestive problems, the agency warned.

Olestra, patented in 1971 by the chemical company Procter & Gamble, binds to most of the nutrients ingested from regular food, leading to nutritional deficiencies. Its composition, a compound of sucrose and fatty acids, can dissolve the four fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K owing to its similarity to common triglycerides, or fats. Time magazine ranked the substance among the 50 worst inventions in history.

Not All E-Numbers Are Created Equal

Other potentially hazardous substances include tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ, E319), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA, E320) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, E321), all permitted in the EU only in exceptional circumstances. According to the Czech consumer organization dTest, which monitors product quality to protect consumers, these substances can cause pseudo-allergic reactions.

The dTest website allows readers to check individual E numbers, whose color coding indicates their relative safety. One example is E150d, the coloring agent found in cola drinks and otherwise known as soft-drink caramel, which is approved without restriction.

Kennedy and his supporters have singled out artificial dyes as particularly harmful, citing Yellow No. 5 (tartrazine, E102), Red No. 40 (Allura Red, E129) and Blue No. 1 (Brilliant Blue, E133). A closer look at the list of E numbers, however, shows that all three are either banned or severely restricted in the European Union.

Some foods also contain paraffin wax derived directly from petroleum cracking, though it is reportedly purified several times over to meet food-grade standards. It is common in cosmetics, but Americans also find it in chocolate, much like synthetic vanillin, which Plant Based News says is derived from petroleum, and benzaldehyde, used for almond flavoring.

The website also cites methionine, one of the essential amino acids, as a further example. It is added to animal feed, and its synthetic form, it claims, is derived from crude oil.

Several medications, primarily pain relievers and anti-inflammatories, are also based on acetylsalicylic acid, a compound derived from petroleum processing. It is the main ingredient in medications such as Aspirin, as well as anticoagulants such as Anopyrin. An emulsifier called poloxamer 407 is found in toothpaste.

Some emulsifiers, substances that blend emulsions [a mixture of two immiscible liquids, ed.], are also considered potentially hazardous. Among the best known are polysorbate 80 (E433) and polysorbate 60 (E435), sometimes used in ice cream as anti-melting agents.

Preservatives known as parabens raise similar concerns. The only paraben listed by dTest in its E number index is heptylparaben (E209), which the organization notes is banned in the EU, though still permitted in the US.

In some cases, these substances act as xenoestrogens, a group of compounds that mimic the effects of estrogens, in this case estradiol, and which can also increase the risk of breast cancer. Their effect on estrogen receptors, however, is significantly weaker, which is why they are considered safe and are commonly used in cosmetics.

A Small Step for Food Safety, Not Yet a Giant Leap

Starting in January of this year, some major food companies began limiting their use of artificial colors, though giants such as Mondelez and Coca-Cola have yet to set a deadline for eliminating synthetic ingredients from their products altogether.

It was not until early August, however, that the US Department of Health took a concrete step, launching a database of food additives and requiring manufacturers to report every change to a product's composition, a requirement that had never previously existed.

The public database, named the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) Notifications, will require companies wishing to add a new ingredient to prove it is safe for humans or animals. The department will also review existing approvals, though individual companies are not required to take part in verifying their own ingredients.

As the New York Times has noted, consumer advocates have long urged the Department of Health to close a legal loophole allegedly exploited by food manufacturers: once a product won FDA approval, nothing stopped a company from later changing its formulation without further oversight from the agency.

In his announcement on 10 August, however, the FDA acting commissioner Kyle Diamantas stopped short of confirming that the new mechanism would require pre-market review. The FDA, he said, does not have that authority, and Congress would need to amend the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 to grant it.

Still, this is a small step for humanity in the shift toward natural alternatives. Zamyatin's nightmare, in which the only food available consists of cubes of compressed petroleum flavored with synthetic additives, is not becoming a reality. On the contrary, it is receding further into the distance.